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Symbolism: Its Meaning and Effect, by Alfred North Whitehead
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- Sales Rank: #5919830 in Books
- Published on: 1985-08-01
- Original language: English
- Number of items: 1
- Dimensions: 8.75" h x 5.50" w x .50" l,
- Binding: Hardcover
- 88 pages
About the Author
Alfred North Whitehead, who began his career as a mathematician, ranks as the foremost philosopher in the twentieth century to construct a speculative system of philosophical cosmology. After his graduation from Cambridge University, he lectured there until 1910 on mathematics. Like Bertrand Russell (see also Vol. 5), his most brilliant pupil, Whitehead viewed philosophy at the start from the standpoint of mathematics, and, with Russell, he wrote Principia Mathematica (1910--13). This work established the derivation of mathematics from logical foundations and has transformed the philosophical discipline of logic. From his work on mathematics and its logical foundations, Whitehead proceeded to what has been regarded as the second phase of his career. In 1910 he left Cambridge for the University of London, where he lectured until he was appointed professor of applied mathematics at the Imperial College of Science and Technology. During his period in London, Whitehead produced works on the epistemological and metaphysical principles of science. The major works of this period are An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge (1919), The Concept of Nature (1920), and The Principles of Relativity (1922). In 1924, at age 63, Whitehead retired from his position at the Imperial College and accepted an appointment as professor of philosophy at Harvard University, where he began his most creative period in speculative philosophy. In Science and the Modern World (1925) he explored the history of the development of science, examining its foundations in categories of philosophical import, and remarked that with the revolutions in biology and physics in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries a revision of these categories was in order. Whitehead unveiled his proposals for a new list of categories supporting a comprehensive philosophical cosmology in Process and Reality (1929), a work hailed as the greatest expression of process philosophy and theology. Adventures of Ideas (1933) is an essay in the philosophy of culture; it centers on what Whitehead considered the key ideas that have shaped Western culture.
Most helpful customer reviews
1 of 1 people found the following review helpful.
DOES MANKIND HAVE TO FIND A “SYMBOL” TO EXPRESS ITSELF?
By Steven H Propp
Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947) was an English mathematician [he is credited as co-writer with Bertrand Russell of Principia Mathematica] and philosopher, best known for developing Process Philosophy. He wrote many other books such as Process and Reality, Modes of Thought, Religion in the Making, etc.
He begins this 1927 book with the statement, “The slightest survey of different epochs of civilization discloses great differences in their attitude towards symbolism. For example, during the medieval period in Europe symbolism seemed to dominate men’s imaginations… With the Reformation a reaction set in. Men tried to dispense with symbols… But such symbolism is on the fringe of life. It has an unessential element in its constitution. The very fact that it can be acquired in one epoch and discarded in another epoch testifies to its superficial nature.” (Pg. 1)
He outlines, “I shall develop the thesis that symbolism is an essential factor in the way we function as the result of our direct knowledge… I shall also endeavor to illustrate the doctrine that all human symbolism, however superficial it may seem, is ultimately to be reduced to trains of this fundamental symbolic reference, trains which finally connect percepts in alternative modes of direct recognition.” (Pg. 6-7)
He explains, “It is the thesis of this work that human symbolism has its origins in the symbolic interplay between two distinct modes of direct perception of the external world. There are, in this way, two sources of information about the external world, closely connected but distinct.” (Pg. 30) He continues, “I have termed one perceptive mode ‘Presentational Immediacy,’ and the other mode ‘Causal Efficacy.’” (Pg. 31)
He states, “One part of our experience is handy, and definite in our consciousness; also it is easy to reproduce at will. The other type of experience, however insistent, is vague, haunting, unmanageable. The former type, for all its decorative sense-experience, is barren. It displays a world concealed under an adventitious show, a show of our own bodily production. The latter type is heavy with the contact of the things gone by, which lay their grip on our immediate selves. This latter type, the mode of causal efficacy, is the experience dominating the primitive living organisms, which have a sense for the fate from which they have emerged, and for the fate towards which they go… It is a heavy, primitive experience. The former type, the presentational immediacy, is the superficial product of complexity, of subtlety…” (Pg. 43-44)
He suggests, “We enjoy the symbol, but we also penetrate to the meaning. The symbols do not create their meaning: the meaning, in the form of actual effective beings reacting upon us, exists for us in its own right. But the symbols discover this meaning for us. They discover it because, in the long course of adaptations of living organisms to their environment, nature taught their use. It developed us to that our projected sensations indicate in general those regions which are the seat of important organisms.” (Pg. 57)
He observes, “Symbolism is no mere idle fancy or corrupt degeneration: it is inherent in the very texture of human life. Language itself is a symbolism… however you reduce the functions of your government to their utmost simplicity, yet symbolism remains… Just as the feudal doctrine of a subordination of classes, reaching up to the ultimate overlord, requires its symbolism; so does the doctrine of human equality obtain its symbolism. Mankind, it seems, has to find a symbol in order to express itself. Indeed, ‘expression’ is ‘symbolism.’” (Pg. 61-62)
Later, he summarizes, “My main thesis is that a social system is kept together by the blind force of instinctive actions, and of instinctive emotions clustered around habits and prejudices. It is therefore not true that any advance in the scale of culture inevitably tends to the preservation of society… But the fact that reason too often fails does not give fair ground for the hysterical conclusion that it never succeeds. Reason can be compared to the force of gravitation, the weakest of all natural forces, but in the end the creator of suns and of stellar systems.” (Pg. 68-70)
He concludes, “The doctrine of symbolism developed in these lectures enables us to distinguish between pure instinctive action, reflex action, and symbolically conditioned action. Pure instinctive action is that functioning of an organism which is wholly analyzable in terms of those conditions laid upon its development by the settled facts of its external environment, conditions describable without any reference to its perceptive mode of presentational immediacy. This pure instinct is the response of any organism to pure causal efficacy.” (Pg. 78)
He continues, “Symbolically conditioned action is action which is thus conditioned by the analysis of the perceptive mode of causal efficacy effected by symbolic transference from the perceptive mode of presentational immediacy… Reflex action is that organic functioning which is wholly dependent on sense-presentation, unaccompanied by any analysis of causal efficacy via symbolic reference. The conscious analysis of perception is primarily concerned with the analysis of the symbolic relationship between the two perceptive modes. Thus reflex action is hindered by thought, which inevitably promotes the prominence of symbolic reference.” (Pg. 80-81)
While this is probably not one of Whitehead’s “major works,” it will be of interest to anyone studying his philosophy.
4 of 5 people found the following review helpful.
Respect, Reverence & Revision
By Peter Uys
Here Whitehead deals with perception, epistemology, Hume, Kant, Burke, instinct, emotion & action in a rather challenging read. When one examines how a society shapes its individual members to function in conformity with its needs, it emerges that the primary agency must be our vast system of inherited symbolism. Symbols evoke loyalty to vague notions that are fundamental to humanity's spiritual nature.
The author pursues the thesis that symbolism is a key factor in the way we function as a result of direct knowledge. Distinguishing 'Direct Recognition' from 'Symbolic Reference,' he shows that all symbolism may be reduced to trains of reference which connect percepts in alternative modes of direct recognition.
Immediate perception of the external world is defined as 'presentational immediacy' whilst the other purely perceptive mode of experience is 'causal efficacy'. Conceptual analysis as third mode of experience introduces analyzable components into actual things in the real world, plus abstract attributes, qualities and relations.
He identifies the flaws of Hume & Kant in their objections to the notion of the direct perception of causal efficacy. Both schools find causal efficacy to be an importation into the data, a way of thinking about or evaluating the data. Hume's assumption that time is merely the generic notion of pure succession is an example of the Fallacy of Misplaced Concreteness. Where Hume errs with time, the Kantians err with space and time.
Whitehead also neatly assesses the best and the worst of Burke's thought with reference to his writings on the American & French revolutions, showing that Burke's revulsion at the excesses of the French one played a part in his subsequent regrettable opposition to all progressive reform and his embrace of the "prejudice" concept.
In order to appreciate the function of symbolism in the life of society one must scrutinize the binding and disruptive forces at work. The advantages of social cohesion and the contrary stimulus of heterogeneity bestowed by freedom are equally important and need to be balanced. Whereas the force of instinct suppresses individuality, symbols simultaneously preserve the health of the community and the freedom of the individual. Symbolic expression preserves society by tying instinct to emotion thus assisting reason to dissect the particular instinct.
Symbolism makes space for the individual within society and at the same time promotes stability and an environment for co-operation between individuals. Whitehead carefully categorizes action as instinctive, reflexive and symbolically conditioned. Pure instinctive action is the response of an organism to pure causal efficacy. Reflex action is a relapse towards a more complex type of instinct by those who have experienced symbolically conditioned action.
The great process philosopher argues that symbolism needs to be constantly pruned and modified by new forms of expression. Old symbols must be remolded in accordance with changes in social structure. The rituals and ceremonies associated with symbolic concepts tend to remain unchanged or become frozen in time while their interpretations are in constant flux. When instinct is not expressed, it becomes toxic as it festers underground, unknown and unexamined by the the force of reason.
Linguistic change is a good example; new words appear, old ones fall into disuse and others undergo shifts of meaning. Language is a living process built on layers of dead metaphor. Sounds and expressions participate in this process of change so in a way, expression is symbolism. A language unites a nation whilst permitting individual opinion including those contrary to the consensus.
Symbolic transference may involve arbitrary and malevolent attributions. Whitehead's analysis reminded me of Chantal Delsol's observation on the current intellectual climate in Europe. Without a sense of purpose, mankind embraces the fatuous as revealed in banal and clichéd discourse. Delsol calls it the "clandestine" ideology of our time, overt ideology having become taboo. This black market substitute is sickly sentimental, arbitrary and intolerant despite furious claims to the contrary.
With reference to the band Rammstein whose act is a particularly grotesque example of what Delsol terms "black market nationalism," Claire Berlinski reveals what the repression of profound instincts leads to. This brilliant analysis, simultaneously hilarious and horrifying, encompasses translations of their lyrics, their use of Leni Riefenstahl footage, their album cover imagery, videos of their songs and the nature of their live performances.
As a community changes, rules and cultural norms need to be revised in the light of reason. When old symbolic systems are rapidly discarded as in the case of the 20th century's secular salvationist ideologies or "isms", violent revolution, oppression and mass murder ensue. Stagnation which leads to regression brings about the same toxic fruits of tyranny and terror that we are witnessing today in the Jihad.
Both rigidity and disruption lead to human sacrifice. Preserving a free society thus requires respect for tradition combined with the constant reappraisal and revision of symbolic codes. Michael Polanyi's view of the role of tradition in his little classic Science, Faith and Society is quite enlightening in this regard. I also recommend Eric Hoffer's The True Believer, a seminal study of the nature of mass movements.
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